It’s necessary these days to have money so that your basic needs would be covered freeing you to work on more important things, such as spiritual matters. To help you with this, I will give you 10 ways to get into money vibration.
These 10 tips will neutralise the vibration of lack and introduce the vibration of wealth into your being.
The first thing you need to do to get into money vibration is to start sharing with people what you already have, even if you have very little. This sharing action will affirm to you mind that you have so much of wealth that you can even share it.
The second thing to do is to get out of the debt, even if you need to sell your stuff for it, and never get back into the debt. Debt enslaves you to the person or institution you owe and locks you into the vibration of lack and helplessness.
The third thing you need to do is to stop talking negatively about your financial situation. Complaining about it again locks you into this negative vibration. Only talk about your finances if you have something positive to say about it, for example, if your money situation is improving.
Number four: stop worrying about money, comfort, security and other material things. You can stop worrying about such matters by increasing your faith in God.
Number five: observe nature to learn the lessons it has about abundance. Everything in nature happens effortlessly and the manifestations of abundance are everywhere. Look at the sky and see a group of birds flying; look at the ground and see countless ants working; look at the trees to observe an abundance of lush leaves moving with the wind. Train your eye this way to focus on abundance everywhere, rather than lack, and this way your mind will manifest abundance in your life too.
Tip number six. Don’t accept lack statements from the people you know. Especially if you live with people who have a vibration of lack, learn to guard your mind against their harmful statements. When someone says something like that, mentally reject their statement and instead affirm something positive. This will make your mind strong and it will be able to resist being dragged down into the lower vibrations.
The seventh thing to do is to meditate on flowing water, like near the river, for example. The flow of water is the representation of the flow of money. Keep this observation in mind, this only one thought, when observing the flowing water.
Number eight: Spend money to make money. Even though you may have very little money, learn to spend it wisely. At this stage of lack it’s vitally important for you to put the roots of money multiplication into your being. You can do that by investing your money to make more money, be it by monetising a domain, keeping money in a bank account with a good interest rate or buying something like a washing machine or a lawnmower for other people to rent. This will not only multiply your money but will also teach a valuable lesson of passive income.
Tip number nine: balance your root, sacral and solar plexus chakras so that you would feel stable, self assured and attuned to the material money vibration if having more money is your goal.
And the last tip I will give you in this article is to replace cheap stuff with wealth affirming items in your home. It’s better, for example, to have much fewer good quality clothes, then many cheap things to wear. Everything in your surroundings affirms whether you are wealthy or poor, so make sure that at least your home is the symbol of abundance rather than lack.
All these tips will help you to raise your vibration to that of money, finally opening you up to the 

क्या मोबाईल फोन से कैंसर हो सकता है ?

 
 
 
 
 
 
मानव मन को चिंतित होने के लिये बस एक कारण चाहिये होता है। समस्या यह है कि चिंता करने के इन कारणो के अनगिनत श्रोत है और हम ऐसे कारणो से चिंतित होते रहते है जो कि चिंता का कोई कारण ही नही होते।
अतंरजाल पर , अखबारो मे ऐसा ही एक कारण आते रहता है कि मोबाईल फोन से कैंसर हो सकता है। शोध के बाद शोध और ऐसी अनगिनत शोधो के बाद भी कैंसर और मोबाईल फोन के बीच मे कोई रिश्ता नही पाया गया है। लेकिन लोगो की चिंता जारी है !
देखते है कि विशेषज्ञ क्या राय रखते है। 
विशेषज्ञो की राय से पहले कुछ मेरी भी:
  1. आम आदमी जैसे ही विकिरण (Radiation) का नाम सुनता है, चिंतित हो जाता है। लेकिन कई तरह के विकिरण होते है,  इनमे से अधिकतर हमे कोई भी हानी, कोई भी क्षति नही पहुंचाते है।
  2. सबसे आम विकिरण प्रकाश है !  जी हां प्रकाश जो सूर्य मे हो रही परमाणु संलयन (Atomic Fusion) की प्रक्रिया से आता है। परमाणु संलयन याने वही प्रक्रिया जो हायड़्रोजन बम मे होती है।
  3. रेडीयो तरंग(Radio Wave), माईक्रोवेव(Microwave)  ये भी विकिरण है लेकिन सृष्टी की उत्पत्ती के समय से मौजूद है। ये दोनो विकिरण हानिकारक नही है। कुछ विकिरण जैसे X तरंग(X ray) हानिकारक है लेकिन अधिक मात्रा मे X  तरंग से प्रभावित होने पर।
  4. मोबाईल फोन जिन तरंगो का प्रयोग करते है वे माइक्रोवेव प्रकाश(Microwave Light) और रेडीयो तरंग(Radio Wave)के मध्य की तरंगे(Wave) हैं।  ये न केवल सुरक्षित है बल्कि इनकी मात्रा भी काफी कम है। मोबाईल फोन को दी जाने वाली उर्जा हमे कोई भी हानी पहुचाने के लिये नगण्य होती है।
  5. मोबाईल फोन और स्वास्थ्य के बिच के संबधो के लिये काफी सारे शोध हुये हैं, किसी भी शोध मे स्वास्थ्य से कोई भी संबध नही पाया गया है। मेरा मतलब सीधे संबध से है ना कि मोबाईल फोन पर बाते करते हुये गाड़ी चलाने, या मशीनो पर काम करने से है।
  6. पिछले कुछ वर्षो मे मोबाईल फोनो की संख्या पूरे दूनिया मे एक विस्फोटक रूप से बढी़ है लेकिन उस रफ्तार से कैंसर की रफ्तार नही बढी़ है। मोबाईल फोन और कैंसर मे थोड़ा सा भी रिश्ता होता, तब हमे कैंसर के रोगियो मे एक नाटकिय बढोत्तरी दिखायी देती, लेकिन ऐसा कुछ नही है।

हिग्स बोसान मिल ही गया !


8 Votes

जिनीवा में CERN के भौतिक विज्ञानीयों  ने  बुधवार 4 जुलाई 2012 को एक प्रेस कांफ्रेंस में दावा किया कि उन्‍हें प्रयोग के दौरान नए कण मिले, जिसके गुणधर्म हिग्‍स बोसोन से मिलते  हैं। उन्‍होंने बताया कि वैज्ञानिक नए कणों के आंकड़ो के विश्‍लेषण में जुटे हैं। हालांकि उन्‍होंने यह भी कहा कि इन नए कणों के कई गुण हिग्‍स बोसोन सिद्धांत से मेल नहीं खाते हैं। फिर भी इसे ब्रह्मांड की उत्त्पत्ती के  रहस्‍य खोलने की दिशा में एक महत्वपूर्ण  कदम  माना जा रहा है।
वैज्ञानिक हिग्स कण की मौजूदगी के बारे में ठोस सबूतों की खोज कर रहे थे। बुधवार को घोषणा की गई है कि खोज प्रारंभिक है लेकिन इसके ठोस सबूत मिले हैं। इस घोषणा से पहले अफवाहों का बाज़ार गर्म था। हिग्स बॉसन या God Particle विज्ञान की एक ऐसी अवधारणा रही है जिसे अभी तक प्रयोग के ज़रिए साबित नहीं किया जा सका था।
वैज्ञानिकों की अब ये कोशिश होगी कि वे पता करें कि ब्रह्रांड की स्थापना कैसे हुई होगी। हिग्स बॉसन के बारे में पता लगाना भौतिक विज्ञान की सबसे बड़ी पहेली माना जाता रहा है। लार्ज हेड्रॉन कोलाइडर नामक परियोजना में दस अरब डॉलर खर्च हो चुके हैं। इस परियोजना के तहत दुनिया के दो सबसे तेज़ कण त्वरक बनाए गए हैं जो  प्रोटानो को प्रकाश गति के समीप गति से टकरायेंगे। इसके बाद जो होगा उससे ब्रह्रांड के उत्पत्ति के कई राज खुल सकेंगे।
वहीं, एटलस प्रोजेक्ट पर काम कर रहे ब्रिटिश भौतिकशास्त्री ब्रॉयन कॉक्सके मुताबिक सीएमएस ने भी एक नया बोसोन खोजा है जो कि मानक हिग्स बोसोन की तरह ही है। हालांकि कॉक्स ने यह भी कहा कि अधिक जानकारी के लिए हिग्स सिग्नल को प्रत्येक इवेंट में 30- प्रोटान-प्रोटान टकराव  कराना पड़ेगा जो कि काफी मुश्किल होगा क्योंकि यह एटलस प्रोजेक्ट की डिजाइन क्षमता के बाहर की बात है।सर्न की खोज पर प्रतिक्रिया देते हुए वैज्ञानिक पीटर हिग्स ने कहा,
‘सर्न के वैज्ञानिक आज के नतीजों के लिए बधाई के पात्र हैं, यह यहां तक पहुंचने के लिए लार्ज हेड्रान कोलाइडर और अन्य प्रयोगों के प्रयासों का ही नतीजा है। मैं नतीजों की रफ्तार देखकर हैरान हूं। खोज की रफ्तार शोधकर्ताओं की विशेषज्ञता और मौजूदा तकनीक की क्षमताओं का प्रमाण है। मैंने कभी उम्मीद नहीं की थी कि मेरे जीवनकाल में ही ऐसा होगा।’
इससे पहले, फ्रांस और स्विटजरलैंड की सीमा पर जिनीवा में बनी सबसे बड़ी प्रयोगशाला में दुनिया भर के बड़े वैज्ञानिकों को निमंत्रित किया गया था।हिग्स बोसोन वे कण हैं, जिसकी ब्रह्मांड के बनने में अहम भूमिका मानी जाती है। भौतिकी  के स्टेंडर्ड माडल  के नियमों के मुताबिक धरती पर हर चीज को द्रव्यमान देने वाले यही कण हैं। लोगों को 1960 के दशक में इनके बारे में पहली बार पता चला। तब से ये भौतिकी की अबूझ पहेली बने हुए हैं।
यूरोपियन ऑर्गनाइजेशन फॉर न्यूक्लियर रिसर्च (सर्न) के जिनीवा के पास स्थित भौतिकी रिसर्च सेंटर के वैज्ञानिको ने बताया कि हिग्ग्स बोसोन का पता तब चला, जब एटलस और सीएमएस प्रयोगों से जुड़े वैज्ञानिको ने लार्ज हैड्रोन कॉलाइडर में तेज गति (प्रकाश गति के समीप) से मूलभूत कणों  को आपस में टकराए।
इस दौरान बोसोन के चमकते हुए अंश सामने आए, लेकिन उन्हें पकड़ना आसान नहीं था। सीएमएस से जुड़े एक वैज्ञानिक ने बताया, ये दोनों ही प्रयोग एक ही द्रव्यमान स्तर पर हिग्स बोसान की उपस्थिति का संकेत दे रहे हैं।

                   Goal Setting

S.M.A.R.T होना  चाहिए  आपका  लक्ष्य !
दोस्तों यहाँ  मैं  आपके  सामने  कुछ  मिलते  जुलते  goals लिख  रहा  हूँ :

·                  मुझे  अच्छे number लाने  हैं .
·                  मुझे  Maths में  अच्छे  number लाने  हैं .
·                  मुझे  annual exam में  Maths में  अच्छे  number लाने  हैं.
·                  मुझे  annual exam में  Maths में  कम  से कम 80 number लाने हैं.
·                  मुझे  annual exam में  Maths में 100 number लाने  हैं.

इन  goals में  से  एक  ही  ऐसा  है  जिसे  SMART कहा  जा  सकता  है . क्या  आप  बता  सकते  हैं  वो  कौन  सा  है ?

सही  उत्तर  जानने  से पहले  आइये  जानते  हैं  की  SMART goal का  मतलब  क्या  होता  है :

SMART  का  मतलब  है :

S –Specific (स्पष्ट)

M -Measurable (जिसे मापा जा सके)

A-Achievable (पूर्ण करने योग्य)

R- Realistic ( वास्तविक)

T- Time-bound ( समय में बंधा हुआ)

एक  SMART goal में  ऊपर  बतायी  गयी  सभी  qualities होनी  चाहियें .


1) Specific :
आपका  लक्ष्य  बिलकुल  clear होना  चाहिए . उसे  सुनने  या  पढने  के  बाद  उसे  लेकर  कोई  संशय  नहीं  होना  चाहिए . अगर  कोई  कहता  है  कि  उसे  “अच्छे  number लाने  हैं  तो  ये  बात  clear नहीं  होती  कि  वो  किस  subject या  exam की  बात  कर  रहा है  जिसमे  उसे  अच्छे  number लाने  हैं . और  अच्छे  से  क्या  मतलब  है ? किसी  के  लिए  100    में  80 अच्छा  हो  सकता  है  किसी  के  लिए  100   में  60 भी  अच्छा  हो  सकता  है .

इसी  तरह  कई  लोग  कहते  हैं  कि  मेरा  लक्ष्य  है  एक  सफल  आदमी  बनना . पर  जब  आप  उनसे  पूछेंगे  की  किस  क्षेत्र  में  तो  शायद  वो  कोई  satisfactory answer ना  दे  पाएं . यानि  वो  अपने  लक्ष्य  को  लेकर  clear नहीं  हैं , और  जब  goal clear ना  हो  तो  उसके  achieve होने  की  बात  ही  नहीं  उठती .

2) Measurable :
 आपका goal ऐसा  होना  चाहिए  जिसे  किसी  पैमाने  पर  मापा  जा  सके . यानि  उस  goal के  साथ  कोई  संख्या  कोई  number जुड़ा  होना  चाहिए . For example, यदि  कोई  कहता  है  की  उसका  लक्ष्य  weight कम  करना  है  तो  सवाल  उठता  है  की  कितना  कम  करना  है . Goal के  साथ  जब  numbers जुड़  जाते  हैं  तो  आप  अपनी  progress को  measure कर  सकते  हैं . और  ये  जान  सकते  हैं  की  आपने  अपना लक्ष्य  सही  तरह से  achieve किया  की  नहीं . इसलिए  एक  अच्छा  goal हमेशा  measurable होता  है . 
3) Achievable:
यदि  आप  कोई  ऐसा  goal बनाएँगे  जो  अन्दर  से  आपको  ऐसी  feeling दे  कि  भाई  ये  तो  impossible है  तो  ऐसे  goal का  कोई  अर्थ  नहीं  है . दोस्तों  हमारा  sub-conscious mind conscious mind से   कहीं   अधिक  powerful होता  है ,यदि  आप  conscious mind से  कोई  impossible goal बनायेंगे  और  subconscious उसे  support नहीं  करेगा  तो  आपके  goal पूरा  होने  के  chances नहीं  के  बराबर  होंगे . For example. आप  decide करते  हैं  कि  मुझे  Maths में  100 number लाने  हैं  और  आपका  past record बताता  है  कि  आप  मुश्किल  से  ही  इस  subject में  पास  होते  हैं  तो  तुरंत  ही  आपका  अवचेतन  मस्तिष्क  इसे  नकार  देगा  और  आप  ये  goal achieve नहीं  कर  पाएंगे . वहीँ   अगर  आप  75% marks लाने  की  सोचते  हैं  तो  आपके  सफल  होने  की  संभावना  कहीं  अधिक  होगी .

4) Realistic:
आपका  goal आपके  लिए  realistic होना  चाहिए . Achievable और  Realistic के  बीच  एक  thin line है . जो लक्ष्य  realistic है वो  achievable हो सकता है, पर जो achievable है वो realistic भी हो ऐसा ज़रूरी नहीं है. For एक्साम्प्ले, Exam में  top करना  एक  achievable goal है , पर  यदि  आपने  शुरू  से  पढ़ाई  नहीं  की  है  और  अब  बस  exam में  कुछ ही दिन बचे  हैं  तो  ये  unrealistic होगा  की  आप  top करेंगे .हमेशा  अपनी  capacity के  हिसाब  से  realistic goals बनाएं . ये  भी  ध्यान  रकेहें  की  कोई  काम किसी  और  के  लिए  realistic हो  सकता  है  पर  आपको  उसे  अपने  angle से  देखना  है  और  अपने  goals design करने  हैं . 
5) Time-Bound : Goals के  साथ  अगर  आप  समय  सीमा  नहीं  निर्धारित  करेंगे  तो  आपको  उसे  achieve करने  की  urgency नहीं  महसूस  होगी  और  आप  उसे  पूरा  करने  के  लिए  सही  प्रयत्न  नहीं  कर  पायेंगे . इसीलिए  goal decide करते  वक़्त  ये  निश्चय  करना  कि  इसे  कब  तक  achieve करना  है  बहुत  ही  आवश्यक  है . मैंने  कई  बार  लोगों  को  ये  कहते  सुना  है  कि  मुझे  business start करना  है , पर  ये  बहुत  कम  ही सुनने  में  आता  है  कि  मुझे  इस  साल  के  इस  महीने  से  business start करना  है . अतः  आप  जब  भी  अपना  goal बनाएं  तो  उसे  कब  तक  achieve करना  है  ये  ध्यान में  रखें  और  उसे  अपनी  सोच का  हिस्सा  बनाएं , ऐसा  करने  से  कहीं  ना  कहीं  Law of Attraction भी  आपको  goals achieve  करने  में  help करेगा .तो  यदि  हम  अपने  शुरआती  प्रश्न  पर  लौटें  तो  हम  पायेंगे  की  अधिकतर  cases में  मुझे  Annual exam में  Maths में  कम  से  कम  80 number लाने  हैं  एक  SMART goal होगा . अगर   मुझे  Annual exam में  Maths में 100 number लाने  हैं   लक्ष्य  की  बात  करें  तो  ये  ज्यादातर   लोगों के  लिए  या  तो  achievable नहीं  होगा  या  realistic नहीं  होगा , पर  कुछ  लोगों  के  लिए  जो  Maths में  exceptionally good हैं  उनके  लिए  ये  एक  SMART goal हो  सकता  है . पर  ऐसी  प्रजाति  बहुत  कम  ही  पायी  जाती  है.
SMART goal बना  लेना  मतलब  आधी जंग जीतना है , और  ना  बना  पाना हारना . बाकी  आधी  जीत  के  लिए  आपको  ये  plan करना  होगा.

IIT JEE set to go, 40% weightage for Class 12


A common aptitude-cum-advanced knowledge test will replace the IIT Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) and the All India Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE) in 2013. Test scores will have 60 per cent weight in deciding admissions; school board marks will have 40 per cent. Test and board scores will determine admissions to all centrally funded engineering institutions.
The common entrance exam, planned as a SAT-type test, is likely to be held online from 2014, and could be given twice a year, highly placed sources said. The paper test is likely to stay on until the online system stabilizes.
The NIT council has approved the new format. All the IITs have agreed too, and are likely to give their formal approval at a meeting of the Joint Admission Board (JAB) on February 18. The human resource development (HRD) ministry has formed a committee of IIT directors and CBSE officials to work out the modalities before the meeting.
The ministry has been working on a common entrance format for over a year, with the aim of reducing the stress of taking multiple tests for students just out of Class 12, checking the coaching business which promotes learning by rote, and reinforcing the importance of school education.
HRD Minister Kapil Sibal plans to take the proposal to the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) to help build acceptability and consensus for the common entrance test among state governments.
“The common entrance exam will have two elements — simple aptitude testing to assess scholastic levels, and an advanced section which a student can choose to either continue with or skip,” said a source.
“This test will essentially produce only scorecards for each student, and the concerned institute will then decide how it will use the 60 per cent weight — say, an IIT can rely more on scores achieved on the advanced level section than on aptitude. It could be a 30-30 aptitude-advanced knowledge format for IITs, and 40-20 for NITs,” the source said.
“While AIEEE and JEE will go, the JAB and the Central Counselling Board (CCB) will stay to work on these finer points and modalities of admission.”
The JEE currently decides admissions to the 15 IITs; the AIEEE to the 30 National Institutes of Technology (NITs), 4 Indian Institutes of Information Technology (IIITs), and 5 Indian Institutes of Science Education & Research (IISERs). A host of private engineering and technical institutes in the states also use AIEEE scores. Over 10 lakh students apply for AIEEE and 5 lakh for JEE every year.

CURRENT AFFAIRS


 करेंट अफेयर्स  सितंबर 2012

यहां पर वर्ष 2012 के सितंबर माह में भारत सहित विश्व के विभिन्न देशों में घटित होने वाली महत्त्वपूर्ण घटनाओं पर आधारित अति उपयोगी प्रश्नों की एक श्रृंखला दी गई. इन प्रश्नों के उत्तर भी प्रश्नों के सम्मुख दिए गए है. यह प्रश्नोत्तर देश के अंदर/बाहर होने वाली विभिन्न प्रतियोगी परीक्षाओं को दृष्टिगत रखते हुए विशेषज्ञों द्वारा तैयार किया गया है. परीक्षार्थी इसे पढ़ें और लाभ उठाएं.
•    वह लेखक/लेखिका जिसको हिंदी सेवा सम्मान से सम्मानित किया गया- रूमी जाफरी
•    वह देश जिसने कैमरुन को पराजित कर लगातार तीसरी बार नेहरु कप फुटबाल टूर्नामेंट-2012 जीत लिया-भारत
•    वह देश जहां गुटनिरपेक्ष देशों का 16वां शिखर सम्मेलन संपन्न हुआ-ईरान (तेहरान)
•    वह स्थान जहां 17 वां शिखर सम्मेलन वर्ष 2015 में आयोजित करने का निर्णय लिया गया-कैराकास (वेनेज़ुएला की राजधानी)
•    वह भारतीय पैरा-एथलीट जिसने लंदन पैरालम्पिक-2012 में भारत के लिए रजत पदक जीता-गिरीश होशांगारा नागाराजेगौडा
•    भारत का वह अर्थशास्त्री जिसे विश्व बैंक का मुख्य अर्थशास्त्री तथा वरिष्ठ उपाध्यक्ष नियुक्त किया गया- कौशिक बसु
•    वह दर जिसे एचएसबीसी ने वित्तवर्ष 2012-13 के लिए भारत की आर्थिक वृद्धि दर के अनुमान को घटाकर कर दिया-5.7 प्रतिशत
•    वह प्रांत जहां आकाशवाणी का पहला 1000 किलोवॉट का डिजीटल रेडियो मॉन्डियाल (डीआरएम) सुपर पॉवर ट्रांसमीटर स्थापित किया गया-गुजरात
•    वह ग्रैंडमास्टर जिसने राष्ट्रीय जूनियर शतरंज चैंपियनशिप 2012 का खिताब जीता-सहज ग्रोवर
•    वित्तवर्ष 2012-13 के लिए भारत की वह आर्थिक वृद्धि दर जिसे एचएसबीसी ने घटा दिया-5.7 प्रतिशत
•    वह न्यायाधीश जिसे भारत के सर्वोच्च न्यायालय का 39वां प्रधान न्यायाधीश नियुक्त किया गया-न्यायमूर्ति अल्तमस कबीर
•    सर्वोच्च न्यायालय का वह पूर्व प्रधान न्यायाधीश जिसका सितंबर 2012 में निधन हो गया-न्यायामूर्ति रंगनाथ मिश्र
•    राष्ट्रीय स्वयं सेवक संघ के वह पूर्व सर संघचालक जिसका सितंबर 2012 में का निधन हो गया-केएस सुदर्शन (कुप्पाली सीतारमैया सुदर्शन)
•    वह भारतीय क्रिकेट खिलाड़ी जिसे अंतरराष्ट्रीय क्रिकेट परिषद के वार्षिक पुरस्कार समारोह में वर्ष 2012 का सर्वश्रेष्ठ एकदिवसीय क्रिकेटर चुना गया-विराट कोहली
•    बॉलीवुड की वह अभिनेत्री जिसे 12वें एशियन अचीवर्स अवार्ड्स में वर्ष 2012 के अंतरराष्ट्रीय व्यक्तित्व के पुरस्कार से सम्मानित किया गया-भाजपा सांसद हेमा मालिनी
•    भारतीय प्रशासनिक सेवा का वह अधिकारी जिसे राष्ट्रीय मानवाधिकार आयोग का महासचिव नियुक्त किया गया-अरूण कुमार जैन
•    वह शहर जहां भारत संचार निगम लिमिटेड (बीएसएनएल) ने देश का पहला उच्च गुणवत्ता वाला वीडियो कॉल केंद्र खोला-अहमदाबाद
•    वह हिन्दी फिल्म जिसका नामांकन वर्ष 2012 के ऑस्कर पुरस्कार के लिए किया गया-बर्फी
•    भारत की वह निशानेबाज जिसने तोक्यो में आयोजित विश्व तीरंदाजी प्रतियोगिता 2012 में महिलाओं की रिकर्व स्पर्धा का रजत पदक जीता-दीपिका कुमारी
•    बालीवुड की वह अभिनेत्री जिसका चयन मुंबई एकेडमी ऑफ मूविंग इमेजेज (मामी) के लाइफटाइम अचीवमेंट अवॉर्ड के लिए किया गया-वहीदा रहमान
•    वह राज्य जहां के मंत्रिमंडल ने मुख्यमंत्री कन्या अभिभावक पेंशन योजना को मंजूरी की- मध्य प्रदेश
•    देश के पहले राष्ट्रीय सुरक्षा सलाहकार जिसका कि सितंबर 2012 में निधन हो गया-ब्रजेश मिश्र
•    वित्तवर्ष 2012-13 के लिए भारत की वह अनुमानित आर्थिक वृद्धि दर जिसे रेटिंग एजेंसी फिच ने घटा दिया-6 प्रतिशत
•    भारत का वह अत्याधुनिक संचार उपग्रह जिसका फ्रेंच गयाना के यूरोपीय अंतरिक्ष केंद्र  से अरियान-5 रॉकेट से सितंबर 2012 में सफल प्रक्षेपण किया गया-जी सेट-10  
•    वह स्थान जहां 9वां विश्व हिन्दी सम्मेलनआयोजित किया गया-जोहानसबर्ग (दक्षिण अफ्रीका)
•    वह देश जहां दक्षिण एशियाई क्षेत्रीय सहयोग संगठन (सार्क) के आठ सदस्य देशों के गृह और आंतरिक मामलों के मंत्रियों का सम्मेलन संपन्न हुआ-मालदीव
•    वह/वे जिसे/जिन्हें वर्ष 2012 के राइट लाइवलीहुड अवॉर्ड के लिए चुना गया-डॉ सीमा समर, जीन शार्प, हायरेट्टिन काराका और ब्रिटेन का संगठन हथियारों के व्यापार के विरुद्ध अभियान
•    भारत की वह पहलवान बहिने जिसने कनाडा के एडमंटन में आयोजित महिला विश्व कुश्ती चैंपियनशिप 2012 का कांस्य पदक जीता- गीता फोगाट एवं बबीता कुमारी


          BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGG. NOTES 
An Introduction to Digital Logic - Signals and Gates
What Are You Going To Learn?
Logic Signals And Gates
AND
OR
NOT (Inverter)
NANDWiring A Gate
A NAND Simulation
An Example Problem
Boolean Algebra
Problems
You are at:  Elements - Logic Circuits - Gates
Return to Table of Contents
Introduction - Why Do You Want to Learn This Material?
        In this lesson you're going to be introduced to Digital Logic.  There are lots of reasons to learn digital logic.  Here are some of those reasons.
  • Digital logic is the foundation for digital computers.  If you want to understand the innards of computers you need to know digital logic.
  • Digital logic has relations to other kinds of logic including:
    • Formal logic - as taught by many philosophy departments
    • Fuzzy logic - a tool used to design control systems and many other systems.
    • So, in learning digital logic you learn something that helps you elsewhere.
  • For many students, learning digital logic is fun.

What Are You Going to Learn?        There are at least two general areas you need to become familiar with.
  • First, there's background you need to know - the basics of digital logic - things like zeros and ones (0s and 1s) and how you can represent signals as sequences of zeroes and ones.  Eventually you will want to know how large arrays of zeroes and ones can be used in computer files to store information in pictures, documents, sounds and even movies and you'll want to learn about how information can be transmitted, between computers and digital signal sources.
  • You will also need to know things about digital circuits - gates, flip-flops and memory elements and others - so that you can eventually design circuits to manipulate digital signals.
Here is a short list of the topics you will learn.
  • Learn what logic signals look like
  • Model logic signals
  • Learn Boolean algebra for logic analysis
  • Learn about gates that process logic signals
  • Learn how to design some smaller logic circuits
  • Learn about flip-flops and memory elements that store logic signals

Objectives For This Lesson Here's what we are after in this lesson - what you should be able to do.
   Given a system that uses logic signals
   Be able to specify what the output will be when the input is zero (0) and what  the output will be when the input is one (1).
   Given an AND, OR, NAND or NOT gate,
   Be able to determine the output of the gate given the input logic signals.
   Given a system that requires gates,
Be able to wire a chip correctly, and to  check that the chip is functioning properly.

Logic Signals        There are a number of different systems for representing binary information in physical systems.  Here are a few.
  • A voltage signal with zero (0) corresponding to 0 volts and one (1) corresponding to five or three volts.
  • A sinusoidal signal with zero corresponding to some frequency, and one corresponding to some other frequency.
  • A current signal with zero corresponding to 4 milliamps and one corresponding to 20 milliamps.
  • And one last way is to use switches, OPEN for "0" and CLOSED for "1".
  • (And there are more ways!)

Characteristics of Logic Signals        We should note that all of these signals can and usually will change in time, so that we really are looking at dynamic situations.  However, we will start by looking at these signals as though they were not changing in time.
  • We will pick a voltage signal as a working example.  It can take on two values corresponding to 0 and 1.
  • We can associate a variable with that logic signal, and we can assign a symbol to represent that variable - like the symbol A.

Think Binary!        Let's examine a typical situation.  You have some sort of device that generates a logic signal.
  • It could be a telephone that converts your voice signal into a sequence of zeros and ones.
  • It could be the thermostat on the wall that generates a 1 when the temperature is too low, and a 0 when the temperature is above the set point temperature.
        The logic signal, A, takes on values of 0 (FALSE, OFF) or 1 (TRUE, ON).  That signal might really be a voltage, a switch closure, etc.  However, we want to think in terms of zeros and ones, not in terms of the values of the voltage.

Operations on Logic Signals        Once we have the concept of a logic signal we can talk about operations that can be performed on logic signals.  Begin by assuming we have two logic signals, A and B.  Then assume that those two signals form an input set to some circuit that takes two logic signals as inputs, and has an output that is also a logic signal.  That situation is represented below.
        The output, C, depends upon the inputs, A and B.  There are many different ways that C could depend upon A and B.  The output, C, is a function, - a logic function - of the inputs, A and B.  IWe will examine a few basic logic functions - ANDOR and NOT functions and start learning the circuitry that you use to implement those functions. 
Logic Gates
        If we think of two signals, A and B, as representing a truth value of two different propositions, then A could be either TRUE (a logical 1) or FALSE (a logical 0).  B can take on the same values.  Now consider a situation in which the output, C, is TRUE only when both A is TRUE and B is TRUE.  We can construct a truth table for this situation. In that truth table, we insert all of the possible combinations of inputs, A and B, and for every combination of A and B we list the output, C.
 


ABC
FalseFalseFalse
FalseTrueFalse
TrueFalseFalse
TrueTrueTrue
An AND Example
        Let's imagine a physician prescribing two drugs.  For some conditions drug A is prescribed, and for other conditions drug B is prescribed.  Taken separately each drug is safe.  When used together dangerous side effects are produced.
Let
  • A = Truth of the statement "Drug 'A' is prescribed.".
  • B = Truth of the statement "Drug 'B' is prescribed.".
  • C = Truth of the statement "The patient is in danger.".
Then, the truth table below shows when the patient is in danger.
 

ABC
FalseFalseFalse
FalseTrueFalse
TrueFalseFalse
TrueTrueTrue
Notice that C is TRUE when both A AND B are true and only then!

AND GATES        An AND function can be implemented electrically using a device known as an AND gate.  You might imagine a system in which zero (0) is represented by zero (0) volts, and one (1) is represented by three (3) volts, for example.  If we are going to use electrical devices we need some sort of symbolic representation.  There is a standard symbol for an AND gate shown below.
        Often in lab work it's helpful to use an LED to show when a signal is 0 or 1.  Usually a 1 is indicated with an LED that is ON (i.e. glowing).  You can use the buttons below to check out this AND gate (Note what an AND gate symbol looks like!) with a simulated LED.  Note the following in the simulation (and you can use this in your lab experiments).
  • To get a logical zero, connect the input of the gate to ground to have zero (0) volts input.
  • To get a logical one, connect the input of the gate to a five (5) volts source to have five volts at the input.
  • Each button controls one switch (two buttons - two switches) so that you can control the individual inputs to the gate.
  • Each time you click a button, you toggle the switch to the opposite position.


QuestionQ1.  You have an AND gate.  Both inputs are zero.  What is the output?

        We now have two ways of representing an AND gate, the truth table and the circuit diagram.  However, there is a third way of representing this information  - a  symbolic way - that will take us toward Boolean algebra.        Let us consider our variables, A, B and C to be algebraic variables, but algebraic variables that can only take on two values, 0 and 1.  Then we represent the AND function symbolically in either of two ways.
C = A·B  or C = AB
        Some will prefer always to insert the dot between the variables so that the AND operation is clearly indicated.  Many times, the  context will allow you just to use AB, without a dot between A and B, but if there is a variable named AB, then confusion can arise.

Problems        Assume you have an AND gate with two inputs, A and B.  Determine the output,
C, for the following cases.
P1.  A = 1, B = 0
P2.  A = 0, B = 1
P3.  If either input is zero, what is the output?
P4.  A = 1, B = 1


        Once we introduce Boolean variables, we can rethink the concept of a truth table.  In the truth table below, if A, B and C are truth tables and we have an AND gate with A and B as inputs and C as the output, the truth table would look like this.
 

ABC
000
010
100
111

OR Gates        Consider a case where a pressure can be high and a temperature can be high Let's assume we have two sensors that measure temperature and pressure..  The first sensor has an output, T, that is 1 when a temperature in a boiler is too high, and 0 otherwise.  The second sensor produces an output, P, that is 1 when the pressure is too high, and 0 otherwise.  Now, for the boiler, we have a dangerous situation when either the temperature or the pressure is too high.  It only takes one.  Let's construct a truth table for this situation.  The output, D, is 1 when danger exists.
 


TPD
FalseFalseFalse
FalseTrueTrue
TrueFalseTrue
TrueTrueTrue
        What we have done is defined an OR gate.  An OR gate is a gate for which the output is 1 whenever one or more of the inputs is 1.  The output of an OR gate is 0 only when all inputs are 0.  Shown below is a schematic symbol for an OR gate, together with the simulated LEDs and input buttons so that you can explore OR gate behavior.
In terms of Boolean variables, the truth table for an OR gate looks like this.
 


ABC
000
011
101
111


Problems        Assume you have an OR gate with two inputs, A and B.  Determine the output, C, for the following cases.
P5.  A = 1, B = 0
P6.  A = 0, B = 1
P7.  If either input is one, what is the output?

NOT Gates (Inverters)        A third important logical element is the inverter.  An inverter does pretty much what it says.  If the input is 0, the output is 1.  Conversely, if the input is 1, the output is 0. The symbol for an inverter is shown below.  Again, you can putter with this inverter with the simulated LEDs.  X is the input to the inverter.  The output is NOT-X represented as ~1 or:

        The truth table for an inverter is pretty simple since there is only one input.  Call the input A, and the output C, and the truth table is:

AC
01
10

Example Problem        You need to control two pumps that supply two different concentrations of reactant to a chemical process.  The strong reactant is used when pH is very far from the desired value, and the weak reactant when pH is close to desired.
        You need to ensure that only one of the two pumps runs at any time.  Each pump controller responds to standard logic signals, that is when the input to the pump controller is 1, the pump operates, and when that input is 0, the pump does not operate.
        You have a bunch of two-input AND gates (IC chips), OR gates and Inverters, and you need to design a logic circuit to control the pumps.  You can generate a signal that is 1 when Pump S is ON, and 0 when Pump W is ON.  Can you design the circuit?
        In order to solve the problem, consider that the pump controls should receive logical inverse signals.  When one pump signal is one, the other is zero.  Given that recognition this circuit should work.  Here, if X is 1, Pump S pumps.
Notice the simple way we can use a switch and a five volt supply to produce a single logic signal that is ""0"" (ground) or 1 (5 volts).

NAND Gates        There is another important kind of gate, the NAND gate.  Actually, the way to start thinking about a NAND gate is to think of it as an AND gate with an inverter on the output.  That's shown below.
Actually, however, the symbol for a NAND gate compresses the inverter down to a dot at the output of the NAND gate as shown below.
Here is a simulated NAND gate.  Check it out.


 


ABC
001
011
101
110

Wiring a Quad-NAND Chip        If you want to use gates, you will need to learn something about their physical characteristics.  In this section we'll walk you through wiring a simple gate circuit using one specific integrated circuit (IC) the 7400 chip.  It's a good introduction to some of the more complex logic chips that you'll probably be using later.
        Here's a picture of the 7400 chip in a circuit board.  This chip is actually an N74LS00P.  The LS tells you that it is a low power Schottky chip.  Every manufacturer will embed the 7400 or 74LS00 in other part numbers.
        Notice that this chip has fourteen pins.
        If you want to use an IC chip, then you will always need to know the pinout.  That's electrical engineering lingo for describing the way the pins are connected to the internal circuitry of the chip.  You need to know where the power supply is connected and where the gate inputs and outputs are connected.  Here's the pinout for a 7400 chip.
        The first step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the positive power supply.  Use a five volt (5v) power supply and don't turn it on yet.  Connect a lead to pin 14 as shown below, and connect the other end of that lead to a 5v supply.  Keep the power supply turned off until you have everything connected.  Here's what that looks like when the positive supply voltage to the chip is wired.
        The next step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the ground connection.  Connect a lead to pin 7 as shown below, and connect the other end of that lead to ground.
        Notice the pattern to this connection.  The power to this digital logic chip goes to the corners.  Remember, power to the corners for logic chips.
        Now you can connect the two inputs to one of the gates on the chip. You're going to put 5v on either of these inputs for a 1 and ground the input for a 0.  There are two wires in the picture below that connect to pins 1 and 2 on the chip.  Those pins are the inputs for one of the NAND gates on the chip.
        Now you can connect the output of the gate.  You will need to connect this output to something like a voltmeter or an oscilloscope so that you can measure and observe the output of the gate.  (And the voltmeter or oscilloscope will also have to be connected to the ground.  You will measure output voltage with respect to ground.)  The output will be near 5v when the output is a 1 and near 0v when the output is a 0.
        Actually, you can often connect LEDs to give a visual indication of a 1 (LED lighted) or a 0 (LED dark).  Here some LEDs are shown, together with 1kW current limiting resistors.  If you connect LED indicators to your circuit remember that an LED is not the same in both directions, and you have to get the correct end connected to the resistor.  The other end of each LED is connected to ground (or just "grounded").  Here's the circuit to show the output of a NAND gate:
When the output of the gate is a 1, the output voltage will be five (5) volts.  Current will flow through the series combination of the resistor and the LED, so the LED will light.  When the output of the gate is a 0, the output voltage will be zero (0) volts and the LED will not be lit.  Thus, the LED lights up when the output is a 1, and doesn't light when the output is a 0.  You can use this indication scheme to show the status for any signal.  (It doesn't have to be the output of a gate.)
       Click here for an introductory laboratory on the 7400 chip.

QuestionQ1        In the picture above, (shown again here) is the power turned on for the chip power supply?


A NAND Gate        Here is a photo of a NAND gate wired to display the input signals and output signals.  In this simulation you can manipulate the inputs and see the inputs and outputs.  Note the following.
  • The input voltage can be set to either 5v or 0v (ground) for each input to one of the NAND gates on the chip.  Five volts is a logical 1, and zero volts is a logical zero.
    • Note how the push buttons move a connection from 5v to ground when the button is pushed.
  • When an signal is a 1, there is an LED that lights to show that the input is 1.  When the LED is not lit, the signal is 0.
    • Note that there is a current limiting resistor in series with each LED.  If the voltage at the output becomes 5v and the LED "saturates" around 1.8v, you need a current limiting resistor.  These resistors look to be 1kW.
  • The power supply connection and the ground connection to the chip are both shown.  The vertical line of connection points on the circuit board is ground.
Check out how the circuit works and note all of the connections that you need to make to ensure that the chip works as it is supposed to work.

Example Problem        Let's reconsider the pump problem.  What happens if there are times when you don't want either pump to pump?  Assume you have a digital signal that is 1 when one of the two pumps is to pump, and 0 when neither pump is to pump.  For example, if the pH was very close to desired you wouldn't want to do anything at all so you wouldn't want either pump to turn on..
        You still have the other signal that determines which pump is to pump whenever one of the pumps should pump.
        Devise a circuit that will ensure that both pumps are OFF when the Pumpsignal is 0 and that the correct pump pumps when the Pump signal is 1.
        The circuit you devise in this section will be simple enough that you can probably implement it with a few chips although you will need to look for chips with AND gates and inverters.  You should be able to handle that now.  Work through the solution in this lesson and try it out in lab if you can.
Example Solution
        Let's look at this problem with a truth table.  Here's the truth table.


Pumps On
1 = ON
Pump Choice
0 = S
1 = W
Pump SPump W
00000
10100
21001
31110
        In English, we say to turn Pump S (Strong reactant) ON when the pumps are ON, and the strong reactant is chosen (Choice 3) and to turn Pump W (Weak reactant) ON when the pumps are ON and the weak reactant is chosen (Choice 2).  Otherwise, do nothing.
        If we examine it closely we see that there is exactly one term in each function.  S is 1 only for choice 3, that is when you want PUMPS ONand you want the strong reactant.  Similarly, W is 1 only for choice 2.  Here's the truth table again.  Note the following:
  • We have defined Boolean variables here for the various signals, P, C, S, and W.
  • We have indicated the inputs by shading them green, and the outputs by shading them orange.

PCSW
00000
10100
21001
31110
        Looking at the statement "S is 1 . . . when you want Pumps ON AND you want the strong reactant" then you can generate a logic expression directly from the statement.
and also:
        Finally, realize that it doesn't take much to implement these functions.  Note you only need one inverter and two AND gates.  Here's the circuit that turns the pumps on at the proper time.  This is an interactive simulation of the circuit, so you can toggle the switches with the push buttons.  Check it out.

QuestionQ2   To check out the circuit you should what?


A QUICK QUESTION        Within the simulated circuit, determine the part of the circuit that genrates a 1 when the pumps are ON, and a 0 when they both are OFF.

What If The Problem Isn't So Simple?        Not all functions are as simple as this one, and certainly not all can be implemented with just a few gates.  However, implementing this simple function gives us a clue how to implement more complex functions.
        In the next lesson we'll look at a more general method for implementing functions - a method that uses only AND and OR gates and inverters - but a method which can also be implemented with only NAND gates.  We hope that sounds intriguiging to you and that you are looking forward to the next lesson.  Click here to go to the lesson on logic functions.

Boolean Algebra        Clearly at this point we are entering a realm of a different kind of algebra.  We have encountered some example terms in this algebra.
and:
        The algebra is unusual because the variables in the algebra (S, P, C and W in the example) can take only two values, 0 and 1.  In this section we will examine some of the properties of this algebra, and the implications of what we have already learned.
        There are some simple things we need to establish before we can proceed.
  • An AND gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and the output is C:

ABC
000
010
100
111
  • So, clearly we have:
    • 0·0 = 0, and
    • 1·1 = 1, and
    • 0·1 = 0
        Which may be exactly what you expected.        We also need to consider an OR gate.
  • An OR gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and the output is C:

 

ABC
000
011
101
111
  • So, clearly we have:
    • 0 + 0 = 0, and
    • 1 + 1 = 1, and
    • 0 + 1 = 1
        Now, if you are taking a college course, and you write home that 1 + 1 = 1 is what you just learned, your parents may want your tuition refunded.        Now, if you accepted what was claimed above, then you also have to accept the following:
A·A = A
Just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an AND.
        We also have:
A + A = A
Again, just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an OR.
        And - - - believe it or not, this result for A + A is very useful because it is a fundamental result that will let us build circuits with fewer gates.  We'll come back to that later.
        There are some interesting theorems that can be proved.  Note the following:

These two little theorems will prove to be useful.  To prove these theorems you only need to know about the properties of AND, OR and NOT gates.  That is left as an exercise for you.
  • When we want to prove a theorem we will take the approach that we can prove the theorem by examining all possible combinations of the appropriate variables.  We can do that because the possible combinations are finite.
Here is a truth table.  It lists all possible combinations for two variables.
 
 

AB
001111
011000
100100
110000
        This truth table proves the following theorem.
Theorem (de Morgan)
 


Proof
        The proof of this theorem is contained in the truth table above which lists every possible combination of A and B, and shows that this result is true.
        One final note.  There are some further simple facts that come in useful.  Note the following:

and:


        Boolean Algebra can be a confusing and misleading business.  De Morgan's theorem above seems almost trivial.  However, there is a very interesting consequence of this theorem.  Here it is:
  • If you have a Boolean function that is a sum-of-products form it can be implemented using a two layer circuit with the first layer composed of AND gates, and the second layer composed of OR gates.
  • Applying deMorgan's theorem to the function the circuit can be built using the same structure, but replacing every AND and OR gate with a NAND gate.
        First, you need to understand how to expand a function in terms of minterms. Click here to go to that lesson.
Problems

Links to Other Lessons on Digital Logic
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